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Infective endocarditis is the presence of a microbial infection on the endocardial surface (the inner surface of the heart). It is the most common cardiovascular infection and is highly significant due to its potential severity and the fact that it can present in different clinical forms.
Infective endocarditis primarily affects the heart valves, whether natural or artificial, although it can sometimes involve other structures of the heart. It is classified according to the duration of the infection (days, weeks, or months) and the type of causative microorganism (bacteria, yeast, or fungi).
The characteristic lesion of infective endocarditis is the endocardial vegetation. This consists of an abnormal aggregate of platelets, fibrin, bacteria, and inflammatory cells that adheres to the inner surface of the heart—typically a heart valve—and can detach, causing infectious emboli in distant organs such as the skin, nervous system, or extremities.
It is considered a serious disease. Although most cases are curable, it carries significant complications and mortality even with treatment. In many cases, achieving a definitive cure requires surgical intervention to remove affected tissue and replace the valve with an artificial one.
In the acute form, infective endocarditis may cause high fever, chills, prostration, and rapid deterioration of general condition over hours or days.
In subacute forms, with progression over weeks or months, the main symptoms are fatigue, loss of appetite, and mild fever. In these cases, characteristic skin lesions, such as nodules or spots, may also occur, although not always.
In patients with severe valve involvement, valvular dysfunction may develop, resulting in heart failure symptoms, such as significant shortness of breath and edema in the lower limbs.
Infective endocarditis has a global incidence of 2–3 cases per 100,000 people per year. In Catalonia, around 200 new cases are diagnosed annually. Its incidence increases significantly with age, reaching 15–30 cases per 100,000 people per year in individuals over 65—about 10 times higher than in younger populations.
The causative agents have changed over recent decades. Previously, streptococci, particularly viridans streptococci, were the most common. Currently, the most frequent pathogens are staphylococci, followed by streptococci and enterococci. However, any microorganism present in the blood can adhere to a heart valve, especially if it is previously damaged or artificial.
Diagnosis is primarily based on:
-blood cultures: to identify the causative microorganism and guide selection of the appropriate antibiotic therapy.
-echocardiography: to locate endocardial vegetations, assess valve function, and determine the need for surgery in certain patients.
In some cases, additional imaging (CT scans, nuclear medicine scans) is necessary to detect peripheral emboli, which are common at diagnosis or during treatment.
Treatment of infective endocarditis is antibiotic therapy, specifically targeted at the causative microorganism. Doses are high and prolonged, because vegetations are poorly vascularized and the antibiotic must penetrate by diffusion from circulating blood.
Patients who do not respond adequately to antibiotic therapy, or who develop significant valvular damage, may require valve replacement surgery.
Blood cultures and echocardiography, both at diagnosis and during follow-up, to monitor disease progression.
In individuals with known valvular abnormalities, antibiotic prophylaxis is recommended before dental procedures or gum surgery, following specialist guidance.
Preventive measures should also be taken during endoscopic procedures, especially upper gastrointestinal endoscopy (gastroscopy), according to the prescribed antibiotic regimen.
This prevention is crucial because the presence of bacteria in the bloodstream during such procedures significantly increases the risk of infective endocarditis.
Otitis is an inflammation of the ear that can affect either the external ear canal or the middle ear. It is common in children and is often linked to swimming or respiratory infections. Pain is the main symptom, and treatment depends on the type and cause.
There are two very different types of otitis, both of which children can suffer from: external otitis and middle ear infection.
External otitis affects the auditory canal and is above all related to exposure to swimming pool, bath and fresh water in general. It is most common in summer.
Middle ear infection is related to infections in the upper respiratory tracts, and can be self-limiting (it resolves itself in most cases) or purulent requiring antibiotic treatment It is most common in winter.
In both cases, diagnosis is clinical: medical history, assessing symptomatology and exploration using an otoscope.
Otoscope exam. Occasionally, if there is suppuration, cultivation of the pus.
Scleroderma is a rare autoimmune disease that causes excess collagen production and hardening of the skin. It can also affect organs such as the lungs, heart, kidneys, or digestive system. One of the most characteristic symptoms is Raynaud’s phenomenon, with color changes in the fingers triggered by cold. Treatment focuses on controlling symptoms and complications depending on the organs involved.
Raynaud syndrome: one of the most characteristic manifestations of the condition (97% of cases), it is the first clinical expression in most patients. It is caused by vasoconstriction of the capillaries. Patients report that with the cold their fingers change colour and turn pale (like wax) first, then turn blue after a while and finally turn reddish. The presence of Raynaud syndrome is not always an indication of scleroderma. In reality, only 5% of people with Raynaud syndrome later develop the condition. Almost half of sufferers may have digital ulcers, as an expression of a severe microcirculatory injury.
The most peculiar manifestation of the disease is the way it affects the skin. It is hard, tight and wrinkle-free (hard to pinch). The extent of the skin condition varies and is related to the prognosis. Two clinical forms are distinguished: limited (distal skin condition to elbows and knees) and diffuse (distal and proximal skin condition to elbows and knees, and torso). The face can be affected equally in both clinical forms. The limited subtype has a better prognosis than the diffuse one. Reduced aperture of the mouth (microstomy) may also be seen. In the skin there are hyperpigmented and coloured areas, telangiectasia (accumulation of small blood vessels) and sometimes subcutaneous calcium deposits can be felt (calcinosis).
Most patients experience joint and muscle pain, and in extreme cases contraction and retraction of the fingers are observed. When the digestive tract is affected, which often happens, the patient complains of a burning sensation and difficulty swallowing, as the oesophagus has lost its ability to move food towards the stomach. Pulmonary disease is the leading cause of death and may occur in the form of fibrosis or pulmonary hypertension; coughing, choking and heart failure are the main manifestations of lung involvement. When the heart is affected, heart rhythm disturbances and in some cases symptoms of angina pectoris are detected, due to the involvement of the small coronary vessels. In a small percentage (about 5%) scleroderma alters the kidney (scleroderma renal crisis) and manifests itself as malignant arterial hypertension and kidney failure.
It should be noted that not all patients with scleroderma present all the manifestations described above. It can also be concluded that there is great, almost individual, variability in the clinical expression of the disease.
Scleroderma is a rare disease with an incidence of 4-18.7/million/year and a prevalence of 31-286/million. It is more common in females, with a variable ratio, depending on the series, ranging from 3:1 to 14:1 (female/male). The age at which it presents is around 30-40 years.
When the above symptomatology is clear, the diagnosis does not offer too much room for doubt. Various complementary tests are helpful in confirming diagnosis and in assessing the degree of involvement of the various organs that may be affected.
“An incurable, but not untreatable condition”. There is currently no treatment for scleroderma that has satisfactory results, but this does not mean that it cannot be treated. Treatment is symptomatic, depending on the organ affected. For Raynaud syndrome: vasodilators, antiplatelets; gastro-oesophageal reflux: proton pump inhibitors; renal crisis: angiotensin converting enzyme inhibitors/dialysis; pulmonary fibrosis: immunosuppressants/lung transplant; pulmonary hypertension: vasodilators/lung transplant. In patients with the diffuse form and less than three years of evolution, immune modulators such as mycophenolate sodium (or mycophenolate mofetil) or methotrexate may be indicated as a basic treatment.
The most common tests to confirm and/or assess the degree of involvement of the various organs are: general analyses and immunological data (specific antinuclear antibodies); capillaroscopy, high-resolution computerised axial tomography scan of the chest, respiratory functional tests, oesophageal manometry and echocardiogram. In the follow-up for these patients, respiratory functional tests and an echocardiogram should be performed annually.
Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease or COPD is a respiratory disease that leads to obstruction of airways. The main symptoms are coughing, hawking and difficulty breathing, requiring particular effort. Although it can be due to other reasons, it is mainly caused by exposure to tobacco smoke. The main treatment is bronchodilators administered using an inhaler.
COPD is a respiratory disease that mainly appears in smokers or ex-smokers and causes the airway to become obstructed or blocked.
The main symptoms are coughing, hawking and difficulty breathing, requiring particular effort. Patients with COPD can also present with infection or worsening of symptoms, known as exacerbation.
The illness mainly affects smokers and ex-smokers. It is also associated with exposure to other sources of smoke, such as biomass smoke. In a small proportion of cases it may be due to genetic causes. The prevalence of COPD is up to 10% of the adult population aged over 40 in Spain.
Diagnosis of COPD is confirmed using a respiratory test: spirometry. This is a very simple test that can be conducted in a primary care centre (CAP). This test should be performed on all individuals over the age of 40 with a history of smoking who have respiratory symptoms such as breathlessness or coughing.
Typical treatment for COPD involves using bronchodilators administered via an inhaler. There are two different types of bronchodilator that may be administered together or separately, depending on each patient’s needs. The aim of this treatment is to reduce the sensation of breathlessness and the number of exacerbations and improve lung capacity. In some patients, administering corticosteroids via inhaler may also be necessary. The best treatment for COPD is stopping smoking.
As well as spirometry, other tests that may be required include chest x-ray, CAT scan, sputum culture or other more complete breathing tests. A blood test is normally performed to rule out genetic causes.
As tobacco is the main risk factor, the best prevention for COPD is not smoking. Exposure to environmental pollution and passive smoking should also be avoided.
Rare factor deficiencies are a group of inherited clotting disorders caused by a deficiency of one or more clotting factors. Clotting factors are involved in a series of reactions to prevent bleeding. Within this set of deficits, factors I, II, V, V + VIII, VII, X, XI or XIII are considered to be affected.
Although in general they do not usually produce spontaneous bleeding, surgery or invasive procedures require prior evaluation of the patient and consideration should be given to administering the appropriate treatment according to the type of procedure and the type of deficit.
It should be noted that most factors usually have a good correlation between factor levels and clinical signs, for example, in factor deficits FI, FII, combined deficit of FV and FVIII, deficit of FX and deficit of FXIII. In the case of VF and VII, however, the correlation is not so clear and with FXI there is usually no correlation between levels and clinical signs.
In general, there is usually bleeding after invasive procedures such as tooth extraction, caesarean section, surgery, epidural anaesthesia, etc. Patients may also present with mucosal bleeding, nosebleeds, heavy-flow menstrual periods, intestinal bleeding, etc.
As it is a genetic disorder, it can appear at all ages. Generally, with a factor level of >20%, haemostasis is ensured in order to conduct a normal daily life, although it is necessary to personalise treatment according to the deficit factor and the characteristics of each patient.
Diagnosis is made in the haemostasis laboratory:
Treatment will depend on the patient’s clinical signs and symptoms, the haemostatic levels required to perform surgery, etc. In mild cases, administration of antifibrinolytics may be sufficient, and in others administration of recombinant factor if available; otherwise plasma or APCC may be used.
The aforementioned laboratory tests.
Arthrosis is a degenerative process characterised by lesions of the cartilage in joints. A joint is the area where a bone connects with another bone, allowing movement. Cartilage is a tissue that covers the joints, acts as a shock absorber for impacts, and also allows the joints to move without friction. Normally, this condition appears in the spinal column, neck, hip, knees, and hands.
The most common manifestation is pain that improves with rest, stiffness when initiating movement, deformities, and difficulty moving the affected joints. There can be a certain degree of inflammation, which will cause swelling due to the excessive accumulation of liquid in the joint.
However, it must be differentiated from arthritis, which is a rheumatic inflammatory disease rooted in joint inflammation that can cause pain which does not improve with rest. Arthrosis is often also called osteoarthritis, which can create some confusion.
This disease is very prevalent and has a high social and health impact. The EPISER2016 study, by the Spanish Society of Rheumatology, showed that the prevalence in the population over 40 years of age is 29%.
Age is the main risk factor. It is more frequent in women. A deterioration of the cartilage is clearly associated with obesity and a lack of regular physical exercise. A misaligned joint or poor posture can also be predisposing factors. Sometimes the cause is a traumatic injury or previous disorder of the affected joint. It has a genetic component (especially arthrosis of the hands).
A diagnosis is obtained by looking at the symptoms, physical examination, and the imaging tests.
Treatment for this disease is aimed at improving symptoms and quality of life for patients while slowing down its clinical evolution. A treatment plan must be individually prepared for each patient and type of joint.
Non-pharmaceutical treatment is essential. We recommend:
Pharmacological treatment normally consists of conventional pain relievers such as paracetamol, which is the analgesic treatment of choice. There are slow-acting treatments, such as chondroitin sulphate (taken orally) or hyaluronic acid (given as an injection), which can improve pain, especially in arthrosis of the knees. Surgery (joint replacement) is reserved for cases in which the joint is destroyed and other measures have failed.
A rare chronic blood disease that is slow to develop. It is characterised by increased platelet production and is associated with greater risk of thrombosis (clotting) and bleeding. Patients with essential thrombocythemia are usually asymptomatic and it is detected during routine blood tests. There is currently no cure for this condition and treatment is targeted at preventing complications.
It is included within the group of chronic myeloproliferative disorders, which are a type of blood cancer that is slow to develop. Its cause is not known, although there are mutations known to be associated with the condition in 80% of cases. It is not hereditary, but some families may have several members affected by it.
It is characterised by increased platelet production and is associated with greater risk of clotting in the arteries and veins, or in some cases with bleeding.
It is a chronic illness that cannot currently be cured, with a normally benign evolution. It can be effectively controlled over long periods and generally has little impact on daily activities and work. Patients with this condition have increased risk compared to the general population of developing other blood diseases, such as acute leukaemia or myelofibrosis.
Many patients show no symptoms, either when they are initially diagnosed or as the condition evolves. Different combinations of symptoms may appear, such as tiredness, itching, night time sweating, aching bones and headaches.
The severity of symptoms varies a lot depending on the patient.
It is considered a rare disease, with a low incidence of 1.5-3 cases per 100,000 inhabitants. It mainly affects people aged 60-70 years and to a lesser extent young people. It is more common in women
It is normally diagnosed through blood tests that show a sustained increase in platelet count.
A bone marrow biopsy can be performed for diagnosis, which, together with the analysis, will allow the determination of risk factors for the progression of the disease, which in turn guide treatment.
It is usually associated with genetic mutations that support diagnosis.
Administering antiplatelets or drugs to reduce the number of platelets is not always indicated.
The aim of treatment is to prevent complications due to clotting and bleeding, as well as controlling the symptoms related to this condition. Depending on the risks and symptoms, the haematologist will therefore determine when to start treatment.
There are special circumstances, such as pregnancy, in which a multidisciplinary approach is required.
It is usually controlled by analysis.
The most important thing is to prevent clotting complications associated with this condition by controlling cardiovascular risk factors (high blood pressure, dyslipidaemia, smoking, obesity, sedentary lifestyle) and following the treatment recommended by your haematologist.
A rare slow-growing chronic blood cancer. It is mainly characterised by increased production of red blood cells, associated with greater risk of clotting, both in veins and in arteries. It has non-specific symptoms, such as increased facial redness and bodily itching. Although there is currently no cure, it can be effectively controlled.
It is included within the group of chronic myeloproliferative disorders. Its cause is not known, although there are known mutations associated with it in the JAK2 gene that occur in 98% of cases. It is not hereditary, but some families may have several members affected by it.
It is characterised by increased production of red blood cells (the number of white blood cells and platelets may also go up) and is associated with increased risk of clotting in arteries or veins.
It is a chronic disease, which cannot currently be cured. It can be effectively controlled over long periods and generally has little impact on daily activities and work. Patients with this condition have increased risk compared to the general population of developing other blood diseases, such as acute leukaemia or myelofibrosis.
There may initially be no symptoms. Facial redness is characteristic of this condition. Patients often present with tiredness, headaches, dizziness and itching (particularly after showering). They may also experience abdominal pain due to increased spleen size.
It mainly affects patients around 60 years old and is a little more common in men than in women.
Mainly done through an analysis revealing high levels of haemoglobin and haematocrits. The number of platelets and white blood cells may also be elevated. A molecular test is also sometimes conducted (JAK2 gene mutation). Other tests may sometimes be needed to complete the diagnosis, such as a bone marrow biopsy.
Treatment aims to prevent complications and control symptoms. It is based on decreasing excess red blood cells by phlebotomies (blood extractions performed in the blood bank). Except for some contraindications, patients require antiplatelets (acetylsalicylic acid). Other drugs to reduce red blood cells may also be indicated.
The most important thing is preventing clotting complications associated with this condition by controlling cardiovascular risk factors (high blood pressure, dyslipidaemia, smoking, obesity, sedentary lifestyle) and following the treatment recommended by your haematologist.
Myelodysplastic Syndromes (MDS) are a group of bone marrow disorders where blood cell production is defective, leading to cytopenias (low blood cell counts) and abnormal cells. Some patients show no symptoms and are diagnosed through blood tests. When symptoms appear, they can include anemia, infections, or easy bleeding. The risk of progression to acute leukemia depends on the subtype. Treatment includes supportive care with transfusions, medications to restore bone marrow function, bone marrow transplantation, and clinical trials.
Patients with MDS often show no symptoms and diagnosis occurs as a result of analytical testing. When symptoms do appear, however, they are most often secondary to cytopaenia. The most common are weakness, paleness, palpitations or feeling short of breath with exertion due to decreased haemoglobin (anaemia). Sometimes, infections may appear as a result of lack of white blood cells (neutropaenia) or bleeding due to the low number of platelets (thrombocytopaenia). These symptoms are not specific to the condition and therefore those with persistent appearance of these symptoms should consult their GP.
MDS are not common conditions. 3-4 new cases are detected each year for every 100,000 people. They are more common in patients over 65 years old (75 cases/100,000 people) and they are twice as common in men as in women.
The diagnostic process begins with an analysis to look for cytopaenia. Once other causes that may justify cytopaenia are ruled out, a bone marrow exam is conducted using bone marrow aspiration (this is the organ responsible for producing the blood elements).
Bone marrow aspiration consists of a puncture in the breastbone or in one of the pelvic bones, performed with a fine needle under local anaesthesia. 4-10 ml of bone marrow is extracted through aspiration. In rare cases, it is necessary to remove a bone core by puncture biopsy with a thick needle (Tru-cut). Sometimes, the test needs to be repeated after some time to confirm the diagnosis.
Treatment will depend on the biological characteristics of the condition and the patient’s general state of health.
It is based on:
1. Support treatment through blood transfusions.
2. Treatment using drugs that aim to restore correct bone marrow function.
3. Bone marrow transplant. Replacing the bone marrow of the person affected with that of a healthy person who is immunologically compatible. This option is very aggressive and can therefore only be offered to a certain group of young patients in good physical health and affected by a specific group of MDS.
4. Clinical trials. Studies that use new drugs with proven efficacy in this group of conditions.
Lung cancer is the general name for neoplastic lung disease in which there is the presence of tumour cells. There are different types of lung cancer, but all of them share tobacco use as a risk factor. It is usually detected by the symptoms it causes, but it can also be an incidental finding in an examination conducted for a different reason.
Lung cancer originates when a set of cancer cells proliferates and produces a local compromise in the space occupied. These cells have a tendency to spread (metastasis) to other organs and, as their biological behaviour is completely abnormal, they produce atypical neurological, dermatological or endocrine signs. There are different types of lung cancer from a cell classification perspective, which require different treatments and prognosis. Lung cancer is always a serious illness, with an overall low survival rate estimated at 20% of patients after 5 years.
Research into this disease in the last few years has led to new treatment strategies, which in some cases cause the disease to go into remission for long periods.
90% of people will have symptoms caused by local tumour growth, including non-specific respiratory symptoms such as coughing and difficulty breathing, or in some cases coughing up blood.
There can also be a wide variety of symptoms: pleural effusion (presence of fluid in the pleura), involvement of the nerve roots that pass through the chest, skin disorders and endocrine disorders because the tumour may produce products that are similar to normal hormones.
It affects both sexes, with a predominance in males. Incidence of lung cancer in women has shown a very worrying increase in the last few years. Although it can be seen in people who have never smoked, a history of smoking is almost always found.
A suspected diagnosis will be made in the clinic and imaging tests will then be conducted in the following order: Chest x-ray, CAT, PET-CT to confirm the suspicion. The types of cells involved will then be ascertained through pleural tap or bronchoscopy. Final diagnosis is always reached by confirming the presence of tumour cells, which is done by the Pathological Anatomy Department.
Lung cancer treatment must be personalised. Surgery can play its role, both in diagnosis and in treatment, as well as radiotherapy, chemotherapy, immunotherapy and the use of biological drugs aimed at blocking certain cell receptor, which are different in each patient.
The typical tests for diagnosis are chest radiography, CAT, PET-CT, pleural aspiration/tap and bronchoscopy.
In order to prevent lung cancer, completely abstaining from tobacco use is essential. Exposure to certain environmental toxins specific to some working environments, such as arsenic, asbestos and chrome should also be avoided.
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